Psychopathology

Acknowledgements Preface to Third Edition Accompanying Online Resources for Instructors and Students PART I - INTRODUCING PSYCHOPATHOLOGY: CONCEPTS, PROCEDURES & PRACTICES Chapter 1 - An Introduction to Psychopathology: Concepts, Paradigms & Stigma Introduction 1.1 A BRIEF HISTORY OF PSYCHOPATHOLOGY 1.1.1 Demonic Possession 1.1.2 The Medical or Disease Model 1.1.3 From Asylums to Community Care 1.1.4 Summary 1.2 DEFINING PSYCHOPATHOLOGY Deviation from the statistical norm Deviation from social and political norms Maladaptive Behaviour & Harmful Dysfunction Distress and Disability Summary 1.3 EXPLANATORY APPROACHES TO PSYCHOPATHOLOGY 1.3.1 Biological Models 1.3.1.1 Genetics 1.3.1.2 Neuroscience Brain Structure & Function Brain Neurotransmitters 1.3.1.3 Summary 1.3.2 Psychological Models 1.3.2.1 The Psychoanalytical or Psychodynamic Model. 1.3.2.2 The Behavioural Model 1.3.2.3 The Cognitive Model 1.3.2.4 The Humanist-Existential Approach 1.3.2.5 Summary 1.4 MENTAL HEALTH & STIGMA What is mental health stigma? Who holds stigmatizing beliefs about mental health problems? What factors cause stigma? Why does stigma matter? How can we eliminate stigma? 1.5 CONCEPTS, PARADIGMS & STIGMA REVISITED Chapter 2 - Classification & Assessment in Clinical Psychology Introduction 2.1 CLASSIFYING PSYCHOPATHOLOGY 2.1.1 The Development of Classification Systems 2.1.2 Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM) Defining and Diagnosing Psychopathology General Problems with Classification 2.1.3 DSM-5 2.1.4 Developing Alternatives to DSM Research Domains Criteria (RDoC) Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP) Network Analyses The Power Threat Meaning (PTM) Framework 2.1.5 Conclusions 2.2 METHODS OF ASSESSMENT 2.2.1 The Reliability and Validity of Assessment Methods 2.2.1.1 Reliability 2.2.1.2 Validity 2.2.2 Clinical Interviews The Nature of Clinical Interviews Structured Interviews Limitations of the Clinical Interview 2.2.3 Psychological Tests Personality Inventories Specific Trait Inventories Projective Tests Computerized Adaptive Testing (CAT) Intelligence Tests Neurological Impairment Tests 2.2.4 Biologically-Based Assessments Psychophysiological Tests Neuroimaging Techniques 2.2.5 Clinical Observation 2.2.6 Cultural Bias in Assessment Examples of Cultural Anomalies in Assessment and Diagnosis Causes of Cultural Anomalies in Assessment and Diagnosis Addressing Cultural Anomalies in Assessment and Diagnosis Summary 2.3 CASE FORMULATION 2.4 CLASSIFICATION & ASSESSMENT IN CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY REVISITED Chapter 3 - Research Methods in Clinical Psychology Introduction 3.1 RESEARCH AND SCIENCE 3.1.1 What is Research? 3.1.2 Scientific Method 3.2 CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY RESEARCH - WHAT DO WE WANT TO FIND OUT? 3.2.1 How does clinical psychology research help us to understand psychopathology? 3.2.2 What questions do clinical psychologists use research to try and answer? 3.3 RESEARCH DESIGNS IN CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY 3.2.1 Correlational Designs 3.2.2 Longitudinal Studies and Prospective Designs 3.2.3 Epidemiological Studies 3.2.4 Experimental Designs 3.2.4.1 Basic Features of the Experimental Method 3.2.4.2 Uses of the Experiment in Clinical Psychology Research 3.2.4.3 Summary 3.2.5 Mixed Designs 3.2.6 Natural Experiments 3.2.7 Single Case Studies 3.2.7.1 Case Studies 3.2.7.2 Single-Case Experiments 3.3.8 Mediators & Moderators 3.3.9 Meta-analyses & Systematic Reviews 3.3.10 Qualitative Methods 3.3.10.1 Conducting and Analysing Qualitative Studies 3.3.10.2 Summary 3.3.11 Summary of Research Designs in Clinical Psychology 3.4 ETHICAL ISSUES IN CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY RESEARCH 3.4.1 Informed Consent 3.4.2 Causing Distress or Withholding Benefits 3.4.3 Privacy and Confidentiality 3.4.4 Summary of Ethical Issues 3.5 RESEARCH METHODS IN CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY REVISITED Chapter 4 - Treating Psychopathology Introduction 4.1 THE NATURE AND FUNCTION OF TREATMENTS FOR PSYCHOPATHOLOGY 4.1.1 Theoretical Approaches to Treatment 4.1.1.1 Psychodynamic Approaches 4.1.1.2 Behaviour Therapy Therapies based on classical conditioning principles Therapies based on operant conditioning principles 4.1.1.3 Cognitive Therapies The Origins of Cognitive Therapy 'Waves' of CBT 4.1.1.4 Humanistic Therapies 4.1.1.5 Family & Systemic Therapies 4.1.1.6 Drug Treatments Drug treatments for depression Drug Treatments for Anxiety Drug Treatments for Psychosis Problems with Drug Treatments 4.1.1.7 Summary of Theoretical Approaches to Treatment 4.1.2 Modes of Treatment Delivery Group Therapy Counselling Digital Technologies Improving Access to Psychological Therapies (IAPT) Summary 4.2 EVALUATING TREATMENT 4.2.1 Factors affecting the evaluation of treatments Spontaneous Remission Placebo Effects Unstructured attention, understanding and caring 4.2.2 Methods of assessing the effectiveness of treatments 4.2.2.1 Randomised Controlled Trials (RCT) What are RCTs? Problems with RCTs 4.2.2.2 Meta-analyses & Systematic Reviews 4.2.3 What treatments are effective? Is treatment more effective than no treatment? 4.2.4 Summary 4.3 TREATING PSYCHOPATHOLOGY REVIEWED Chapter 5 - Clinical Practice Introduction 5.1 THE ECONOMIC COST OF MENTAL HEALTH PROBLEMS 5.2 WHO ARE MENTAL HEALTH PROFESSIONALS? 5.3 PROVIDING MENTAL HEALTH SERVICES 5.3.1 What Facilities are Available? 5.3.2 How are Mental Health Services Structured? 5.3.3 The Recovery Model 5.4 THE ROLE OF THE CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGIST 5.4.1 Key Capabilities & Competencies 5.4.2 The Reflective Practitioner Model 5.4.3 Regulation & Continuing Professional Development 5.4.4 Training to be a Clinical Psychologist 5.4.4.1 Pre-Training Qualifications & Experiences 5.4.4.2 Clinical Training 5.5 CLINICAL PRACTICE REVIEWED PART II - PSYCHOPATHOLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGICAL PROBLEMS Chapter 6 - Anxiety & Stressor-Related Problems Introduction Anxiety as a Comorbid Condition 6.1 SPECIFIC PHOBIAS Prevalence Common Phobias 6.1.1 The Aetiology of Specific Phobias Psychoanalytic Accounts Classical Conditioning and Phobias Biological Accounts of Phobias - The Role of Evolution Biological Accounts of Phobias - Neuroimaging Studies Multiple Pathways to Phobias 6.1.2 The Treatment of Specific Phobias 6.2 SOCIAL ANXIETY DISORDER Prevalence 6.2.1 The Aetiology of Social Anxiety Disorder Genetic Factors Familial & Developmental Factors Cognitive Factors 6.2.2 The Treatment of Social Anxiety Disorder 6.3 PANIC DISORDER & AGORAPHOBIA Panic Disorder Agoraphobia Prevalence 6.3.1 The Aetiology of Panic Disorder & Agoraphobia 6.3.1.1 The Aetiology of Panic Disorder 6.3.1.1.1 Biological Theories of Panic Disorder Biological Factors The Role of Hyperventilation 6.3.1.1.2 Psychological Theories of Panic Disorder Classical conditioning Anxiety Sensitivity Catastrophic Misinterpretation of Bodily Sensations Summary 6.3.2 The Treatment of Panic Disorder 6.4 GENERALIZED ANXIETY DISORDER (GAD) Diagnosis & Prevalence Prevalence 6.4.1 The Aetiology of Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) 6.4.1.1 Biological Theories 6.4.1.2 Psychological Theories Information processing biases in GAD Beliefs about Worry and the Function of Worrying Dispositional Characteristics of Worriers 6.4.2 The Treatment of Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) 6.4.2.1 Pharmacological Treatments 6.4.2.2 Psychological Treatments Stimulus Control Treatment Cognitive Behaviour Therapy 6.5 OBSESSIVE-COMPULSIVE DISORDER (OCD) Diagnosis & Prevalence OCD-Related Disorders 6.5.1 The Aetiology of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder 6.5.1.1 Biological Factors 6.5.1.2 Psychological Factors 6.5.1.2.1 Memory Deficits 6.5.1.2.2 Clinical Constructs and OCD Inflated Responsibility Thought-Action Fusion Mental Contamination 6.5.1.2.3 Thought Suppression 6.5.1.2.4 Family Accommodation & Excessive Reassurance Seeking 6.5.1.2.5 Perseveration and the Role of Mood 6.5.1.2.6 Summary 6.5.2 The Treatment of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder Problems in Treating OCD Exposure & Ritual Prevention Treatments (EPR) Cognitive Behaviour Therapy (CBT) Pharmacological and Neurosurgical Treatments 6.6 TRAUMA & STRESS-RELATED DISORDERS Diagnosis & Prevalence of Trauma and Stress-Related Disorders 6.6.1 The Aetiology of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Biological Factors Vulnerability Factors Avoidance & Dissociation Conditioning Theory Emotional Processing Theory 'Mental Defeat' Dual Representation Theory Summary 6.6.2 The Treatment of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Psychological Debriefing Exposure Therapies Cognitive Restructuring 6.7 ANXIETY-BASED PROBLEMS REVIEWED Chapter 7 - Depression & Mood Disorders Introduction 7.1 MAJOR DEPRESSION 7.1.1 THE DIAGNOSIS & PREVALENCE OF MAJOR DEPRESSION 7.1.2 THE AETIOLOGY OF DEPRESSION & MOOD DISORDERS 7.1.2.1 Risk Factors for Depression 7.1.2.2 Biological Theories Genetic Factors Neurochemical Factors Brain Abnormalities and Depression Neuroendocrine Factors Summary of Biological Theories 7.1.2.3 Psychological Theories Psychodynamic Explanations Behavioural Theories Negative Cognitions & Self-Schema Learned Helplessness and Attribution Hopelessness Theory Rumination Theory 7.2 BIPOLAR DISORDER 7.2.1 THE DIAGNOSIS & PREVALENCE OF BIPOLAR DISORDER 7.2.2 THE AETIOLOGY OF BIPOLAR DISORDER 7.2.2.1 Biological Theories Genetic Factors Neurochemical Factors 7.2.2.2 Cognitive Deficits in Bipolar Disorder 7.2.2.3 Triggers for Depression & Mania in Bipolar Disorder 7.3 THE TREATMENT OF DEPRESSION 7.3.1 Biological Treatments Antidepressant Medications Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (rTMS) Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) 7.3.2 Psychological Treatments Psychoanalysis Social Skills Training Behavioural Activation Cognitive Therapy 7.4 NON-SUICIDAL SELF INJURY (NSSI) 7.5 SUICIDE 7.5.1 Risk factors for Suicide 7.5.2 Identifying and Preventing Suicide 7.6 DEPRESSON & MOOD DISORDERS REVIEWED Chapter 8 - Experiencing Psychosis: Schizophrenia Spectrum Problems Introduction 8.1 THE NATURE OF PSYCHOTIC SYMPTOMS 8.1.1 Delusions 8.1.2 Hallucinations 8.1.3 Disorganised Thinking (Speech) 8.1.4 Grossly Disorganised or Abnormal Motor Behaviour 8.1.5 Negative Symptoms 8.2 THE DIAGNOSIS OF SCHIZOPHRENIA SPECTRUM DISORDERS 8.2.1 Delusional Disorder 8.2.2 Brief Psychotic Disorder 8.2.3 Schizophrenia 8.2.4 Schizoaffective Disorder 8.3 THE PREVALENCE OF SCHIZOPHRENIA SPECTRUM DISORDERS 8.4 THE COURSE OF PSYCHOTIC SYMPTOMS The Prodromal Stage The Active Stage The Residual Stage 8.5 THE AETIOLOGY OF PSYCHOTIC SYMPTOMS 8.5.1 Biological Theories Genetic Factors Molecular Genetics Brain Neurotransmitters The Neuroscience of Schizophrenia 8.5.2 Psychological Theories 8.5.2.1 Psychodynamic Theories 8.5.2.2 Behavioural Theories 8.5.2.3 Cognitive Theories 8.5.2.3.1 Cognitive Deficits 8.5.2.3.2 Cognitive Biases Attentional Biases Attributional Biases Reasoning Biases Interpretational Biases Theory of Mind (TOM) 8.5.2.4 Metacognitive Deficits 8.5.3 Sociocultural Theories Social Factors Familial Factors 8.5.4 Summary of Theories of Psychotic Symptoms 8.6 THE TREATMENT OF PSYCHOSIS 8.6.1 Biological Treatments Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) and Psychosurgery Antipsychotic Drugs 8.6.2 Psychological Therapies Social Skills Training Cognitive Behaviour Therapy for Psychosis (CBTp) Personal Therapy Cognitive Remediation Training 8.6.3 Family Interventions 8.6.4 Community Care 8.6.5 Summary of Treatment for Psychosis 8.7 EXPERIENCING PSYCHOSIS REVIEWED Chapter 9 - Substance Use Disorders Introduction 9.1 DEFINING AND DIAGNOSING SUBSTANCE USE DISORDERS 9.2 THE PREVALENCE AND COMORBIDITY OF SUBSTANCE USE DISORDERS 9.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF SPECIFIC SUBSTANCE ABUSE DISORDERS 9.3.1 Alcohol Use Disorder Alcohol Abuse and Dependence Prevalence of Use The Course of Alcohol Use Disorders The Costs of Alcohol Use Disorders Summary 9.3.2 Tobacco Use Disorder Prevalence of Use: Tobacco Use Disorder The Costs of Nicotine Use Summary 9.3.3 Cannabis Use Disorder Prevalence of Use Cannabis Use Disorder The Costs of Cannabis Use Disorder 9.3.4 Stimulant Use Disorders 9.3.4.1 Cocaine Prevalence of Use Cocaine Use Disorder The Costs of Cocaine Use Disorder 9.3.4.2 Amphetamines Prevalence of Use Amphetamine Use Disorder The Costs of Amphetamine Use Disorder 9.3.4.3 Caffeine 9.3.5 Sedative Use Disorders 9.3.5.1 Opioids Prevalence of Use Opioid Use Disorder The Costs of Opioid Use Disorder 9.3.6 Hallucinogenic-Related Disorders 9.3.6.1 Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD) Prevalence of Use LSD Abuse and Dependency The Costs of LSD Use 9.3.6.2 Ecstasy Prevalence of Use Ecstasy Regular Use The Costs of Ecstasy Use 9.4 THE AETIOLOGY OF SUBSTANCE USE DISORDERS 9.4.1 Experimentation Availability Familial Factors Peer Group Influences Media Influences 9.4.2 Regular Use Mood Regulation Self-Medication Long-Term Expectations and Beliefs Cultural Variables 9.4.3 Abuse and Dependence Genetic Predisposition Long-Term Substance-Induced Cognitive Deficits Concurrent Psychiatric Diagnoses Poverty 9.4.4 Summary 9.5 THE TREATMENT OF SUBSTANCE USE DISORDERS 9.5.1 Community-Based Programmes 9.5.2 Behavioural Therapies Aversion Therapy Contingency Management Therapy 9.5.3 Cognitive Behavioural Therapies (CBT) 9.5.4 Family & Couples Therapy 9.5.5 Biological Treatments 9.5.6 Summary 9.6 SUBSTANCE USE DISORDERS REVIEWED Chapter 10 - Eating Disorders Introduction 10.1 DIAGNOSIS AND PREVALENCE 10.1.1 Anorexia Nervosa 10.1.2 Bulimia Nervosa 10.1.3 Binge-Eating Disorder (BED) 10.2 CULTURAL & DEMOGRAPHIC DIFFERENCES IN EATING DISORDERS Cultural Differences Demographic Factors within Cultures 10.3 THE AETIOLOGY OF EATING DISORDERS 10.3.1 Biological Factors Genetic Influences Neurobiological Factors 10.3.2 Sociocultural Influences Media Influences, Body Dissatisfaction and Dieting Peer Influences Familial Factors 10.3.3 Experiential Factors 10.3.4 Psychological and Dispositional Factors 10.3.5 Cognitive Deficits 10.3.6 Transdiagnostic Models of Eating Disorders 10.3.7 Summary 10.4 THE TREATMENT OF EATING DISORDERS Pharmacological Treatments Family Therapy The Maudsley Anorexia Nervosa Treatment for Adults (MANTRA) Cognitive Behaviour Therapy (CBT) Prevention Programmes 10.5 EATING DISORDERS REVIEWED Chapter 11 - Sexual Problems Introduction 11.1 DEFINING PATHOLOGICAL SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR 11.2 SEXUAL DYSFUNCTIONS 11.2.1 Diagnosis of Sexual Dysfunctions 11.2.1.1 Specific Sexual Dysfunctions 11.2.1.1.1 Disorders of Desire and Arousal Male Hypoactive Sexual Desire Disorder Erectile Disorder Female Sexual Interest/Arousal Disorder 11.2.1.1.2 Disorders of Orgasm Female Orgasmic Disorder Delayed Ejaculation Early Ejaculation 11.2.1.1.3 Sexual Pain Disorders Genito-Pelvic Pain/Penetration Disorder 11.2.1.1.4 Summary of Specific Sexual Dysfunction Disorders 11.2.2 The Aetiology of Sexual Dysfunctions 11.2.2.1 Risk Factors for Sexual Dysfunctions 11.2.2.2 Theories of the Aetiology of Sexual Dysfunction Psychanalytic Theory The Two-Factor Model of Masters & Johnson Sexual Dysfunction and Interpersonal Problems The Role of Negative Emotion and Psychopathology Remote vs Immediate Causes Biological Causes Sociocultural Causes Summary 11.2.3 The Treatment of Sexual Dysfunctions 11.2.3.1 Psychological and Behavioural Treatments Direct Treatment of Symptoms Couples Therapy Sexual Skills and Communication Training CBT for Sexual Dysfunction Summary of Psychological Interventions for Sexual Dysfunction 11.2.3.2 Biological Treatments Drug Treatments Hormone Treatments Mechanical Devices 11.2.3.3 Summary of Treatments of Sexual Dysfunction 11.2.4 Summary of Sexual Dysfunction 11.3 PARAPHILIC DISORDERS 11.3.1 The Diagnosis and Description of Paraphilic Disorders Fetishistic disorder Transvestic Disorder Exhibitionistic Disorder Voyeuristic disorder Frotteuristic Disorder Pedophilic Disorder Sexual Masochism Disorder and Sexual Sadism Disorder 11.3.2 The Aetiology of Paraphilic Disorders Risk Factors for Paraphilic disorders The Psychodynamic Perspective Classical conditioning Childhood Abuse & Neglect Dysfunctional Beliefs, Attitudes and Schemata Biological Theories Summary 11.3.3 The Treatment of Paraphilic Disorders Behavioural Techniques Cognitive Treatments Relapse-Prevention Training Hormonal and Drug Treatments Summary of the Treatment of Paraphilic Disorders 11.3.4 Summary of Paraphilic Disorders 11.4 SEXUAL PROBLEMS REVIEWED Chapter 12 - Personality Disorders Introduction 12.1 CONTEMPORARY ISSUES IN THE DIAGNOSIS OF PERSONALITY DISORDERS 12.1.1 The Categorical Approach to Personality Disorders in DSM-IV-TR & DSM-5 12.1.2 Problems with the Traditional Categorical Model 12.1.3 DSM-5's Alternative Model Level of Personality Functioning Pathological Personality Traits Specific Personality Disorders 12.1.4 Summary 12.2 PERSONALITY DISORDERS & THEIR DIAGNOSIS 12.2.1 Odd/Eccentric Personality Disorders (Cluster A) Paranoid Personality Disorder Schizoid Personality Disorder Schizotypal Personality Disorder 12.2.2 Dramatic/Emotional Personality Disorders (Cluster B) Antisocial Personality Disorder (APD) Borderline Personality Disorder (BDP) Narcissistic Personality Disorder Histrionic Personality Disorder 12.2.3 Anxious/Fearful Personality Disorders (Cluster C) Avoidant Personality Disorder Dependent Personality Disorder Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder 12.2.4 Summary 12.3 THE PREVALENCE OF PERSONALITY DISORDERS 12.4 THE AETIOLOGY OF PERSONALITY DISORDERS 12.4.1 Odd/Eccentric Personality Disorders (Cluster A) Psychodynamic Approaches The Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorder 12.4.2 Dramatic/Emotional Personality Disorders (Cluster B) 12.4.2.1 Antisocial Personality Disorder Childhood and Adolescent Behavioural Precursors of APD Developmental Factors Genetic Factors Physiological and Neurological Factors Cognitive Models Summary of Theories of Antisocial Personality Disorder 12.4.2.2 Borderline Personality Disorder Risk Factors for Borderline Personality Disorder Biological Theories of BPD Psychological Theories of BPD Diathesis-Stress Models of BPD 12.4.2.3 Narcissistic Personality Disorder 12.4.2.4 Histrionic Personality Disorder 12.4.3 Anxious/Fearful Personality Disorders (Cluster C) 12.4.3.1 Avoidant Personality Disorder 12.4.3.2 Dependent Personality Disorder 12.4.3.3 Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder 12.4.3.4 Summary of the Aetiology of Personality Disorders 12.5 TREATING PEOPLE WITH A DIAGNOSIS OF PERSONALITY DISORDER 12.5.1 Drug Treatments 12.5.2 Psychodynamic and Insight Approaches 12.5.3 Dialectical Behaviour Therapy 12.5.4. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy 12.5.5 Schema-Focused Cognitive Therapy 12.5.6 Summary of Treatments for People with a Diagnosis of Personality Disorder 12.6 PERSONALITY DISORDERS REVIEWED Chapter 13 - Somatic Symptom Disorders Introduction 13.1 THE DIAGNOSIS AND CHARACTERISTICS OF SOMATIC SYMPTOM DISORDERS Somatic Symptom Disorder Illness Anxiety Disorder Conversion Disorder Factitious Disorder 13.2 THE AETIOLOGY OF SOMATIC SYMPTOM DISORDERS Psychodynamic Interpretations Consciousness and Behaviour Risk Factors for Somatic Symptom Disorders Learning approaches Cognitive Factors Sociocultural Approaches Biological Factors Summary 13.3 THE TREATMENT OF SOMATIC SYMPTOM DISORDERS Psychodynamic Therapy Behaviour Therapy Cognitive Behavioural Therapy Drug Treatments Summary 13. 4 SOMATIC SYMPTOM DISORDERS REVIEWED Chapter 14 - Dissociative Experiences Introduction 14.1 THE DIAGNOSIS AND CHARACTERISTICS OF DISSOCIATIVE DISORDERS. Dissociative Amnesia Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID) Depersonalization Disorder 14.1.2 Dissociative Disorders & PTSD 14.2 THE AETIOLOGY OF DISSOCIATIVE DISORDERS Risk Factors for Dissociative Disorders Psychodynamic Theories The Role of Fantasy and Dissociative Experiences Cognitive Approaches Biological Explanations Dissociative Symptoms as Role-Playing and Therapeutic Constructions Summary 14.3 THE TREATMENT OF DISSOCIATIVE DISORDERS Psychodynamic Therapy Hypnotherapy Drug Treatments Summary 14.4 DISSOCIATIVE DISORDERS REVIEWED Chapter 15 - Neurocognitive Disorders Introduction 15.1 THE DIAGNOSIS AND ASSESSMENT OF NEUROCOGNITIVE DISORDERS 15.1.1 Cognitive Impairments in Neurocognitive Disorders Learning and memory deficits Deficits in attention and arousal Language Deficits Deficits in visual-perceptual functioning Motor Skill deficits Deficits in Executive Functions Deficits in Higher-Order Intellectual Functioning 15.1.2 Assessment in Clinical Neuropsychology 15.1.3 The Diagnosis of Neurocognitive Disorders 15.1.3.1 Difficulties of Diagnosis 15.1.3.2 DSM-5 Neurocognitive Disorder Diagnostic Categories Delirium Major or Minor Neurocognitive Disorders (NCDs) 15.1.3.3 TYPES OF MAJOR NEUROCOGNITIVE DISORDER 15.1.3.3.1 NCD due to HIV Infection 15.1.3.3.2 NCD due to Prion Disease 15.1.3.3.3 NCD due to Traumatic Brain Injury 15.1.3.3.4 Vascular Neurocognitive Disorder 15.1.3.3.5 Degenerative Disorders 15.1.3.3.5.1 NCD due to Alzheimer's Disease Characteristics of Alzheimer's Disease Aetiology of Alzheimer's Disease 15.1.3.3.5.2 Frontotemporal Neurocognitive Disorder 15.1.3.3.5.3 NCD due to Parkinson's Disease & NCD with Lewy Bodies 15.1.3.3.5.4 NCD due to Huntington's Disease 15.1.3.3.5.5 Summary of Types of Neurocognitive Disorder 15.2 TREATMENT AND REHABILITATION FOR NEUROCOGNTIVE DISORDERS 15.2.1 Biological Treatments Drug Treatments Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS) 15.2.2 Cognitive Rehabilitation Attention Deficits Visuospatial Deficits Apraxia and Deficits in Coordinated Self-Help Behaviours Language and Communication Deficits Memory Deficits Deficits in Executive Functioning Holistic Rehabilitation Methods 15.2.3 Caregiver Support Programmes 15.2.4 Summary of Treatments and Rehabilitation for Neurocognitive Disorders 15.3 NEUROCOGNITIVE DISORDERS REVIEWED Chapter 16 - Childhood & Adolescent Psychological Problems Introduction 16.1 THE DIAGNOSIS & PREVALENCE OF CHILDHOOD & ADOLESCENT PSYCHOLOGICAL PROBLEMS: SOME GENERAL ISSUES 16.1.1 Difficulties associated with identification and diagnosis of childhood and adolescent psychological problems 16.1.2 Childhood Psychopathology as the Precursor of Adult Psychopathology 16.1.3 The Prevalence of Childhood & Adolescent Psychological Disorders 16.2 DISRUPTIVE BEHAVIOUR PROBLEMS 16.2.1 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) 16.2.1.1 The Diagnosis of ADHD 16.2.1.2 The Prevalence of ADHD 16.2.1.3 The Consequences of ADHD 16.2.1.4 The Aetiology of ADHD 16.2.1.4.1 Biological Factors Genetic Factors Neuroscience Pre-natal Factors Environmental Toxins 16.2.1.4.2 Psychological Factors Parent-Child Interactions Theory of Mind (TOM) Deficits 16.2.1.5 Summary 16.2.2 CONDUCT DISORDER 16.2.2.1 The Diagnosis of Conduct Disorder 16.2.2.2 The Prevalence and Course of Conduct Disorder 16.2.2.3 The Aetiology of Conduct Disorder 16.2.2.3.1 Biological Factors Genetic Factors Neuropsychological Deficits Prenatal Factors 16.2.2.3.2 Psychological Factors The Family Environment and Parent-Child Relationships Media and Peer Influences Cognitive Factors Socioeconomic Factors 16.2.2.4 Summary 16.3 CHILDHOOD & ADOLESCENT ANXIETY AND DEPRESSION 16.3.1 Childhood Anxiety 16.3.1.1 The Features and Characteristics of Childhood & Adolescent Anxiety Problems Separation Anxiety Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) Generalised Anxiety Disorder (GAD) Specific Phobias 16.3.1.2 The Aetiology of Childhood & Adolescent Anxiety Problems Genetic Factors Trauma and Stress Experiences Modelling and Exposure to Information Parenting Style 16.3.2 Childhood & Adolescent Depression 16.3.2.1 The Diagnosis and Prevalence of Childhood & Adolescent Depression 16.3.2.2 The Aetiology of Childhood & Adolescent Depression Risk Factors of Childhood Depression Genetic Factors Psychological Factors 16.4 THE TREATMENT OF CHILDHOOD & ADOLESCENT PSYCHOLOGICAL PROBLEMS 16.4.1 Drug Treatments 16.4.2 Behaviour Therapy 16.4.3 Family Interventions 16.4.4 Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) 16.4.5 Play Therapy 16.4.6 Prevention Strategies 16.4.7 Summary of Treatment of Childhood & Adolescent Psychological Problems 16.5 CHILDHOOD & ADOLESCENT PSYCHOLOGICAL PROBLEMS REVIEWED Chapter 17 - Neurodevelopmental Disability & Diversity Introduction 17.1 THE HISTORY OF CATERGORIZING AND LABELLING NEURODEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITIES & DIVERSITIES 17.2 SPECIFIC LEARNING PROBLEMS 17.2.1 Specific Learning Disorder Dyslexia Dyscalculia 17.2.2 Communication Disorders Language Disorder Speech Sound Disorder Childhood-onset Fluency Disorder (Stuttering) 17.2.3 The Aetiology of Specific Learning Disabilities 17.2.3.1 Dyslexia Genetic Factors Cognitive Factors Brain Function 17.2.3.2 Dyscalculia 17.2.3.3 Communication Disorders 17.2.4 Treatment & Support for Specific Learning Problems 17.2.5 Summary of Specific Learning Problems 17.3 INTELLECTUAL DISABILITIES 17.3.1 DSM-5 Diagnostic Criteria for Intellectual Disability 17.3.2 Alternative Approaches to Defining Intellectual Disability 17.3.3 The Prevalence of Intellectual Disabilities 17.3.4 The Aetiology of Intellectual Disability 17.3.4.1 Biological Causes Chromosomal Disorders Metabolic Disorders Perinatal Causes 17.3.4.2 Childhood Causes 17.3.4.3 Summary 17.3.5 Support and Interventions for Intellectual Disabilities 17.3.5.1 Prevention Strategies 17.3.5.2 Training Procedures 17.3.5.3 Inclusion Strategies 17.3.5.4 Summary of Support and Intervention for Intellectual Disabilities 17.3.6 Summary of Intellectual Disabilities 17.4 AUTISTIC SPECTRUM DISORDER (ASD) 17.4.1 The Characteristics of Autistic Spectrum Disorder Impairments of reciprocal social interaction Impairments in communication Impairments in imagination and flexibility of thought Intellectual Deficits 17.4.2 The Diagnosis of Autistic Spectrum Disorder 17.4.3 The Prevalence of Autistic Spectrum Disorder 17.4.4 The Aetiology of Autistic Spectrum Disorder 17.4.4.1 Biological Causes Genetic Factors Perinatal Factors Brain Function 17.4.4.2 Cognitive Factors Deficits in Executive Functioning Theory of Mind Deficits The Empathizing-Systematizing Theory 17.4.4.3 Summary of the Aetiology of Autistic Spectrum Disorder 17.4.5 Support and Interventions and Individuals with Autistic Spectrum Disorder 17.4.5.1 Difficulties in the treatment of individuals with severe autistic spectrum disorder 17.4.5.2 Drug Treatments 17.4.5.3 Behavioural Training Methods 17.4.5.4 Inclusion Strategies 17.4.5.5 Summary of Support & Interventions for Individuals with Autistic Spectrum Disorder 17.4.6 Summary of Autistic Spectrum Disorder 17.5 NEURODEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITY & DIVERSITY REVIEWED Index

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• Psicologia